Medieval: 2016

As a general rule, while ambling horses are able to canter, they usually are not known for speed, nor is it particularly easy for a horse to transition from an ambling gait into the canter or gallop. Thus, in history, where comfort for long hours in the saddle was important, ambling horses were preferred for smoothness, surefootedness and quiet disposition. However, when speed and quick action was of greater importance, horses that trotted were more suitable due to their speed and agility. When horses were used in warfare, particularly during the Middle Ages, it was not uncommon for a knight to ride an ambling horse to a battle site, then switch to a war horse for galloping into the actual battle.

Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size, build and breed from the modern horse, and were, on average, smaller. They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts, being essential for war, agriculture, and transport.

Consequently, specific types of horses developed, many of which have no modern equivalent. While an understanding of modern horse breeds and equestrianism is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse, researchers also need to consider documentary (both written and pictorial) and archeological evidence.

Horses in the Middle Ages were rarely differentiated by breed, but rather by use. This led them to be described, for example, as "chargers" (war horses), "palfreys" (riding horses), cart horses or packhorses. Reference is also given to their place of origin, such as "Spanish horses," but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown. Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages, where several words can be used for one thing (or, conversely, several objects are described by one word). Words such as 'courser' and 'charger' are used interchangeably (even within one document), and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a rouncey, another praises its skill and swiftness.

Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment, often introduced from other cultures, allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture. In particular, improved designs for the solid-treed saddle as well as the arrival of the stirrup, horseshoe and horse collar were significant advances in medieval society.

Consequently, the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive, and debate still rages on many issues, such as the breeding or size of the horse, and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject

During the decline of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages, much of the quality breeding stock developed during the classical period was lost due to uncontrolled breeding and had to be built up again over the following centuries. In the west, this may have been due in part to the reliance of the British and Scandinavians on infantry-based warfare, where horses were only used for riding and pursuit.

However, there were exceptions; in the 7th century a Merovingian kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse breeding centre. The Spanish also retained many quality horses, in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse-breeding land, and partially due to the cultural influences related to the Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula between the 8th and 15th centuries.

The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure, although it is believed they had some Barb and Arabian blood, through the Spanish Jennet, a forerunner to the modern Friesian and Andalusian horse. It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the Nisaean breed (possibly akin to the Turkoman horse) from Iran and Anatolia, another type of oriental horse brought back from the Crusades.] "Spanish" horses, whatever their breeding, were the most expensive. In fact, in Germany the word spanjol became the term used to describe quality war horses. However, German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia. France also produced good war horses. Some scholars attribute this to the strong Feudal society there, but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians, combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of Charles Martel over the Islamic Umayyad invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732. Following this battle, the Carolingians began to increase their heavy cavalry, which resulted in the seizure of land (for fodder production), and a change in tribute payment from cattle to horses.

As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized, planned breeding programs increased. Many changes were due to the influence of Islamic culture through both the Crusades and the Moorish invasions of Spain; the Arabs kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an oral tradition. Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks, who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet. Because they could read and write, thus kept careful records, monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility, particularly in Spain. In England, a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies, which were rounded up annually by horse-breeders, including the Cistercians, for use as campaign riding horses, or light cavalry; one such breed was the Fell pony, which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse.
It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers when this type seems to disappear from record during the seventeenth century. Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval "great horse," with some historians considering breeds such as the Percheron, Belgian and Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier. However, other historians discount this theory, since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different 'type' to the modern draught horse Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with "cold blooded" work horses, since war horses, and the destrier in particular, were renowned for their hot-blooded nature.

Types of horses
Throughout the period, horses were rarely described by breed, but rather by type: by describing their purpose, or their physical attributes. Many of the definitions were not precise, or were interchangeable. Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down. Thus, many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not describe breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose.
One of the best-known of the medieval horses was the destrier, renowned and admired for its capabilities in war. It was well trained, and was required to be strong, fast and agile.[15] A fourteenth century writer described them as "tall and majestic and with great strength".[16] In contemporary sources, the destrier was frequently referred to as the "great horse" because of its size and reputation.[17] Being a subjective term, it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight, but since the average horse of the time was 12 to 14 hands (48 to 56 inches (120 to 140 cm)),[18] thus a "great horse" by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes. The destrier was highly prized by knights and men-at-arms, but was actually not very common,[12] and appears to have been most suited to the joust.[17]
Coursers were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light, fast and strong.[17] They were valuable, but not as costly as the destrier.[15] They were also used frequently for hunting.

A more general-purpose horse was the rouncey (also rounsey), which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war.[20] It was commonly used by squires, men-at-arms or poorer knights. A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his retinue.[15] Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse; when a summons to war was sent out in England, in 1327, it expressly requested rounceys, for swift pursuit, rather than destriers.[21] Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses (but never as cart horses).[22]
The well-bred palfrey, which could equal a destrier in price, was popular with nobles and highly-ranked knights for riding, hunting and ceremonial use.[23] Ambling was a desirable trait in a palfrey, as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort.[4] Other horse types included the jennet, a small horse first bred in Spain from Barb and Arabian bloodstock.[5] Their quiet and dependable nature, as well as size, made them popular as riding horses for ladies; however, they were also used as cavalry horses by the Spanish.[23]
The hobby was a lightweight horse, about 13 to 14 hands (52 to 56 inches (130 to 140 cm)), developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan (Barb) bloodstock. This type of quick and agile horse was popular for skirmishing, and was often ridden by light cavalry known as Hobelars. Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the Wars of Scottish Independence, with Edward I of England trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish exports of the horses to Scotland. Robert Bruce employed the hobby for his guerilla warfare and mounted raids, covering 60 to 70 miles (97 to 110 km) a day.

Warfare
While light cavalry had been used in warfare for many centuries, the medieval era saw the rise of heavy cavalry, particularly the European knight. Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted shock troops first occurred, but the technique had become widespread by the mid 12th Century.[25] The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare.[26] Pitched battles were avoided, if at all possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges,[27] or swift mounted raids called chevauchées, with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable.[28] Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable, but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks,[29] by the fourteenth century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight.[30] Horses were sent to the rear, and kept ready for pursuit.[31] By the Late Middle Ages (approx 1300-1550), large battles became more common, probably because of the success of infantry tactics and changes in weaponry.[32] However, because such tactics left the knight unmounted, the role of the war horse also changed. By the 17th century, the medieval charger had become a thing of the past, replaced by lighter, unarmoured horses. Throughout the period, light horse, or prickers, were used for scouting and reconnaissance; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies.[31] Large teams of draught horses, or oxen, were used for pulling the heavy early cannon.[33] Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies.

Tournaments

A later print of a 15th century joust
Tournaments and hastiludes began in the eleventh century as both a sport and to provide training for battle. Usually taking the form of a melee, the participants used the horses, armour and weapons of war.[34] The sport of jousting grew out of the tournament and, by the fifteenth century, the art of tilting became quite sophisticated.[35] In the process, the pageantry and specialization became less war-like, perhaps because of the knight's changing role in war.[36]
Horses were specially bred for the joust, and heavier armour developed. However, this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses. Interpreters at the Royal Armouries, Leeds, have re-created the joust, using specially bred horses and replica armour.[citation needed][37] Their horses are 15-16 hands high (60 to 64 inches (150 to 160 cm)), and approximately 1,100 pounds (500 kg), and perform well in the joust.[citation needed][38]
[edit]Types of war horses
See also: Destrier, Rouncey, and Courser (horse)

This 13th century manuscript shows an approximate height of the medieval horse at the time, note the knights' legs extending well below the horses' barrels.
The most well known horse of the medieval era of Europe is the destrier, known for carrying knights into war. However, most knights and mounted men-at-arms rode smaller horses known as coursers and rounceys. (A generic name often used to describe medieval war horses is charger, which appears interchangeable with the other terms). In Spain, the jennet was used as a light cavalry horse.[39]
Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot-blooded tendencies. A thirteenth century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield,[40] and, in the heat of battle, war horses were often seen fighting each other.[41] However, the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references.[42] Mares were the preferred war horse of the Moors, the Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from A.D. 700 through the 15th Century.

War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses, and destriers the most prized, but figures vary greatly from source to source. Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse[3] to 700 times.[1] The Bohemian king Wenzel II rode a horse "valued at one thousand marks" in 1298.[6] At the other extreme, a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a squire could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey.[20] Knights were expected to have at least one war horse (as well as riding horses and packhorses), with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty-four horses on campaign.[12] Five horses was perhaps the standard.

Size of war horses
There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse, with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18 hands (68 to 72 inches (170 to 180 cm)), as large as a modern Shire horse.[44] However, there are practical reasons for dispute over size. Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands (60 to 64 inches (150 to 160 cm)),[45] or about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse.[15] Research undertaken at the Museum of London, using literary, pictorial and archeological sources, supports military horses of 14-15 hands (56 to 60 inches (140 to 150 cm)), distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill, rather than its size.[46] This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period. Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the ninth and tenth centuries,[47] and by the eleventh century the average warhorse was probably 14.2 to 15 hh (58 to 60 inches (150 to 150 cm)), a size verified by studies of Norman horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the Bayeux Tapestry.[48] Analysis of horse transports suggests thirteenth century destriers were a stocky build, and no more than 15-15.2 hands (60 to 62 inches (150 to 160 cm)).[49] Three centuries later, warhorses were not significantly bigger; the Royal Armouries used a 15.2 hand (62 inches (160 cm)) Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for the statues displaying various fifteenth-sixteenth century horse armours, as her body shape was an excellent fit.[50]

Ornate 16th century armour for horse and knight, and typical high saddle. Royal Armoury, Stockholm
Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of draught horse type is the assumption, still held by many, that medieval armour was heavy. In fact, even the heaviest tournament armour (for knights) weighed little more than 90 pounds (41 kg), and field (war) armour 40 to 70 pounds (18 to 32 kg); barding, or horse armour, more common in tournaments than war, rarely weighed more than 70 pounds (32 kg).[51] For horses, Cuir bouilli (a type of hardened leather), and padded caparisons would have been more common,[52] and probably as effective.[53] Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment, horses can carry approximately 30% of their weight; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the 1,200 to 1,300 pounds (540 to 590 kg) range, and a draught horse was not needed.

Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight, it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a lance strike.[55] However, practical experiments by re-enactors have suggested that the rider's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount, and that little of the horse's weight is translated to the lance.[56]
Further evidence for a 14-16 hand (56 to 64 inches (140 to 160 cm)) war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour, without touching the stirrup. This arose not from vanity, but necessity: if unhorsed during battle, a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself. In reality, of course, a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult, and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him. Incidentally, a knight's armour served in his favour in any fall. With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded-linen hood, and his helm placed on top, he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or equestrian helmet.

Transportation

A horse litter
Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel, often widely. The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates; the demands of diplomacy, war and crusades took men to distant countries; priests travelled between churches, monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome; people of all classes went on pilgrimage, or travelled to find work; others travelled as a pastime.[58] Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys.[59] But for the upper classes, travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display, with fine horses, large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort.[60] For example, in 1445, the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king's stable and 186 kept for "chariots" (carriages) and carts.[61]
During much of the Middle Ages, there was no system of interconnected roads and bridges. Though parts of Europe still had remnants of Roman roads built before the collapse of the Roman Empire, most had long fallen into disrepair.[3] Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads, smooth-gaited horses were preferred, and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground-covering four-beat gaits collectively known as an amble rather than the more jarring trot.[4]
Mule trains, for land travel, and barges, for river and canal travel, were the most common form of long-distance haulage, although wheeled horse-drawn vehicles were used for shorter journeys.[62] In areas with good roads, regular carrier services were established between major towns.[63] However, because medieval roads were generally so poor, carriages for human passengers were rare. When roads permitted, early carriages were developed from freight wagons. Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late fourteenth century with the introduction of the chariot branlant, which had strap suspension.[64]
The speed of travel varied greatly. Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow-paced carts and litters, or by servants and attendants on foot, and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day. Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day. However, there were exceptions: stopping only for a change of horses midway, Richard II of England once managed the 70 miles between Daventry and Westminster in a night.[65]
For breeding, war and travel purposes, it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves. For this purpose, boats were adapted and built to be used as horse transports. William of Normandy's 1066 invasion of England required the transfer of over 2000 horses from Normandy.[66] Similarly, when travelling to France in 1285–6, Edward I of England ferried over 1000 horses across the English Channel to provide the royal party with transport.[67]
[edit]Riding horses

A 13th century depiction of a riding horse.
Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages, and so varied greatly in quality, size and breeding. Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war-trains, saving their warhorses for the battle.[12] The names of horses referred to a type of horse, rather than a breed. Many horses were described by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled. For example, in Germany, Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding.[6] Individual horses were often described by their gait ('trotters' or 'amblers'), by their colouring, or by the name of their breeder.[68]
The best riding horses were known as palfreys; other riding horses were often called hackneys, from which the modern term "hack" is derived. Women sometimes rode palfreys or small quiet horses known as jennets.[15]
[edit]Harness and pack horses
A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages. The pack horse (or "sumpter horse") carried equipment and belongings.[15] Common riding horses, often called "hackneys", could be used as pack horses.[61] Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage, on farms, or as part of a military campaign. These draught horses were smaller than their modern counterparts; pictorial and archeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short, approximately 13-14 hands (52 to 56 inches (130 to 140 cm)), and capable of drawing a load of 500 to 600 pounds (230 to 270 kg) per horse.[69] Four-wheeled wagons and two-wheeled carts were more common in towns, such as London and, depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load, were usually pulled by teams of two, three, or four horses harnessed in tandem.[63] Starting in the 12th century, in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses, a process that extended through the 13th century. This change came because horse-drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox-drawn methods of transport.[70]
[edit]Agriculture

This horse is fitted with a horse collar to bear the weight of the harrow.October, Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry
The Romans had used a two-field crop rotation agricultural system, but from the 8th century on, a three-field system became more common. One field would be sown with a winter crop, the second with a spring crop, and the third left fallow. This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown, which provided fodder for horses.[71] Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy mouldboard plough, which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily; this technology required the use of larger teams of draught animals including oxen and horses, as well as the adoption of larger fields.[72] Particularly after the 12th Century, the increased use of both the horse collar and use of iron horse shoes allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently.[73] Horse teams usually were four horses, or perhaps six, as compared to eight oxen, and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture, unlike oxen. The increased speed of horses also allowed more land to be ploughed in a day, with a eight ox plough team averaging a half an acre a day, but a horse team averaged an acre a day.[70]
For farm work, such as ploughing and harrowing, the draught horse used was called an affrus (or stott), which was usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse.[69] While oxen were traditionally used as work animals on farms, horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar.[74] Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together. The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources (for example, the 11th century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses), and also clear from the change from the Roman two-field crop-rotation system to a new three-field system, which increased the cultivation of fodder crops (predominantly oats, barley and beans).[75] Horses were also used to process crops; they were used to turn the wheels in mills (such as corn mills), and transport crops to market.[76] The change to horse-drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs, as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough, unlike oxen.[70]
[edit]Equestrian equipment and technological innovations

See also: Horseshoe

Detail from 15th C painting by Gentile da Fabriano, showing curb bits, with ornamental bosses at the sides of the mouthpiece
The development of equestrian technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of horse breeding and utilisation. The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to heavy cavalry both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the stirrup, solid-treed saddle, and horseshoe from other cultures.
The development of the nailed horseshoe enabled longer, faster journeys on horseback, particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe, and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains.[25] By providing protection and support, nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of draught horse teams.[73] Though the Romans had developed an iron "hipposandal" that resembled a hoof boot, there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe, though it does appear to be of European origin. There is little evidence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is speculation that the Celtic Gauls were the first to nail on metal horseshoes.[77] The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to "crescent figured irons and their nails" in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910.[78] Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in Siberia during the 9th and 10th centuries, and had spread to Byzantium soon afterward; by the 11th century, horseshoes were commonly used in Europe.[79] By the time the Crusades began in 1096, horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources.[78]
[edit]Riding technology
See also: Saddle, Stirrup, Bridle, and Bit (horse)
The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle, possibly as early as the first century BC,[80] and it was widespread by the 2nd century A.D.[81] Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman "four-horn" saddle, and were used without stirrups.[82] The development of the solid saddle tree was significant; it raised the rider above the horse's back, and distributed the rider's weight, reducing the pounds per square inch carried on any one part of the horse's back, thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life.[4] Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. From the twelfth century, on the high war-saddle became more common, providing protection as well as added security.[25] The built up cantle of a solid-treed saddle enabled horsemen to use lance more effectively.[56]
Beneath the saddle, caparisons or saddle cloths were sometimes worn; these could be decorated or embroidered with heraldic colours and arms.[83] War horses could be equipped with additional covers, blankets and armour collectively referred to as barding; this could be for decorative or protective purposes. Early forms of horse armour, usually restricted to tournaments, comprised padded leather pieces, covered by a trapper (a decorated cloth), which was not particularly heavy.[52] Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used; there are literary references to horse armour (an "iron blanket") starting in the late twelfth century.[84]
The solid tree allowed for effective use of the stirrup.[4] The stirrup was developed in China and in widespread use there by 477 AD.[85] By the 7th century, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Avars, stirrups arrived in Europe,[86] and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century.[87] Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling, especially against infantry.[56]
The increased use of the stirrup from the eighth century on aided the warrior's stability and security in the saddle when fighting.[88] This may have led to greater use of shock tactics, although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups.[56] In particular, Charles Martel recognized the military potential of the stirrup, and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner.[89]
A theory known as The Great Stirrup Controversy argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of feudalism itself.[90] Other scholars, however, dispute this assertion, suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare, being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting, and simply reduce the risk of falling off. Therefore, it is argued, they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries, nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism.[91]
There was a variety of headgear used to control horses, predominantly bridles with assorted designs of bits. Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the bradoon, snaffle bit and curb bit that are still in common use today. However, they often were decorated to a greater degree: the bit rings or shanks were frequently covered with large, ornamental "bosses."[92] Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today.The curb bit was known during the classical period, but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid-14th century.[92] Some styles of snaffle bit used during the Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended, in the manner of the modern half-cheek or full cheek snaffle.[92] Until the late 13th century, bridles generally had a single pair of reins; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins, similar to that of the modern double bridle, and often at least one set was decorated.[93]
Spurs were commonly used throughout the period, especially by knights, with whom they were regularly associated. A young man was said to have "won his spurs" when he achieved knighthood.[94] Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs.[95] Attached to the rider's heel by straps, spurs could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement.[96] Early spurs had a short shanks or "neck", placing the rowel relatively close to the rider's heel; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck, making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider.[95]
[edit]Harness technology

In this depiction of a medieval horse team, the lead pair have breast collars, while the trace pair wear horse collars. Note that one horse is saddled.
See also: Horse harness and Horse collar
A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in harness, particularly for ploughing and other farm work, was the horse collar. The horse collar was invented in China during the 5th century, arrived in Europe during the 9th century,[97] and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century.[98] It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of yokes or breastcollars used in earlier times.[99] The yoke was designed for oxen and not suited to the anatomy of horses, it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters.[97] Harnessed in such a manner, horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg.[73] The breastplate-style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal, while useful for pulling light vehicles, was of little use for heavy work. These straps pressed against the horse's sterno-cephalicus muscle and trachea, which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse.[100] Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about 1,100 pounds (500 kg).[101] In contrast, the horse collar rested on horses' shoulders and did not impede breathing.[73] It allowed a horse to use its full strength, by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders.[97] With the horse collar, a horse could provide a work effort of 50% more foot-pounds per second than an ox, because it could move at a greater speed, as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day.[101] A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about 1,500 pounds (680 kg).[101]
A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams; by hitching horses one behind the other, rather than side by side, weight could be distributed more evenly, and pulling power increased.[102] This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of Troyes, which show carters hauling stone from quarries 50 miles (80 km) distant; the carts weighed, on average, 5,500 pounds (2,500 kg), on which 5,500 pounds (2,500 kg) of stone was regularly loaded, sometimes increasing to 8,600 pounds (3,900 kg) – a significant increase from Roman-era loads.[103]
[edit]Horse trades and professions

The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the knight. Generally raised from the middle and upper classes, the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse. In most languages, the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman: the French chevalier, Spanish caballero and German Ritter. The French word for horse-mastery – chevalerie – gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood: chivalry.[104]
A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses. In great households, the marshal was responsible for all aspects relating to horses: the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses, as well as all travel logistics.[61] The position of marshal (literally "horse servant") was a high one in court circles and the king's marshal (such as the Earl Marshal in England) was also responsible for managing many military matters.[105] Also present within the great households was the constable (or "count of the stable"), who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and, with marshals, might organise hastiludes and other chivalrous events.[106] Within lower social groupings, the 'marshal' acted as a farrier.[107] The highly-skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes, cared for the hoof, and provided general veterinary care for horses; throughout the Middle Ages, a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the blacksmith, whose work was more limited.[108]
A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. Horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in England) bought and sold horses, and frequently had the reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses.[59] Others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft.[59]
[edit]Women and horses

See also: Sidesaddle

This medieval painting shows several women armed and mounted on war horses, some with armour, some without. Note even the woman in a gown is riding astride, not sidesaddle.

Depiction of a lady riding in an early sidesaddle of a design credited to Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394) – Gerard Horenbout, 16th C
It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father's trade, and for a woman to share her husband's trade; many guilds also accepted the membership of widows, so they might continue their husband's business. Under this system, some women trained in horse-related trades, and there are records of women working as farriers and saddle-makers.[109] On farms, where every hand was needed, excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable, and women often worked alongside men (on their own farms or as hired help), leading the farmhorses and oxen, and managing their care.[110]
Despite the difficulties of travel, it was customary for many people, including women, to travel long distances.[62] Upper-class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments, and many women travelled for social or family engagements; both nuns and laywomen would perform pilgrimages.[111] When not on foot, women would usually travel on horseback or, if weakened or infirm, be carried in a wagon or a litter. If roads permitted, women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons, pulled by three or four horses.[112] After the invention of better suspension systems, travel in carriages became more comfortable.[64] Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport, accompanying men in activities that included hunting and hawking.[113]
Most medieval women rode astride. While an early chair-like sidesaddle with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns, they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages.[76] This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered, which necessitated a smooth-gaited horse being led by another handler. The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the reins to control her own horse. Even then, sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second, "leaping horn" in the 19th century.[114]
It was not unknown for women to ride war horses, and take their part in warfare. Joan of Arc is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period, but there were many others, including the Empress Matilda who, armoured and mounted, led an army against her cousin Stephen of Blois, and Stephen's wife Matilda of Boulogne in the 12th Century.[115] The fifteenth-century writer Christine de Pizan advised aristocratic ladies that they must "know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare, ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it."[116]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_transports_in_the_Middle_Ages

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennet

Holistic Planned Grazing and Broiler weight differences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g46YxxvuS9k

Multi Species Grazing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ljel6sIHXgU

Multi-species Grazing for Sustainable Farming
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p8HhR413tSI

Horses are "browsers". In nature they tend to select grasses, clovers and herbs and then move to new areas. They can travel over five kilometres a day and sometimes they never return to the same area to graze. Horses prefer not to graze areas soiled by manure. This self-imposed lax grazing enables them to avoid manure contaminated pasture which minimises their parasite burdens. Given the nature of horse grazing it is not surprising that pasture management problems emerged when man first began to confine horses. These problems have increased with the intensification of horses.

Grazing behaviour

Grazing behaviour greatly affects the performance of horses. Forage selection and intake, grazing period and the defecation pattern of horses make their grazing behaviour unique. This behaviour is the basis for a number of the pasture management problems currently experienced by horse managers.

Pasture selection and quantity

A grazing horse cannot see what it eats due to a blind spot immediately in front of its head. Pasture selection is based on smell, touch and taste. Smell is the most important and is critical in determining the palatability (acceptance) of pasture. The smell and avoidance of pasture soiled by manure causes "horse-sick" pastures.

Taste tends to be strongly related to smell.

Individual horses have preference for certain forages and horses are generally accepted as having perceptive palates with an ability to distinguish between sweet and bitter tastes. Taste allows horses to avoid poisonous plants. Touch is also important in forage selection. Tactile hairs, or touch receptors, on the lips allow horses to determine what to graze and inform the horse how far its nose is from the ground or objects. The combined effects of smell, touch and taste normally ensure that harmful forage is not swallowed. A simple estimate of how much pasture (or feed) a horse can eat as a percentage of its liveweight is shown below

Horses spend between 16 and 18 hours a day grazing. The exact length of time depends on pasture quantity, quality and the level of supplementary feed. Horses have a grazing behaviour and physiology that enable them to be extremely selective in what they consume.

Manure management is important in the prevention of "horse-sick" [manure not removed] pastures.

The best method of managing manure is manure collection. To obtain all the benefits, manure must be collected every 24 hours. Pasture harrowing, trailing an implement to spread manure evenly across a paddock and to desiccate parasite larvae, should only be done in hot weather after rainfall. Pasture sweeping and vacuuming are used on some horse studs. Their use is restricted due to purchase cost of equipment and their requirement for flat, even ground and year-round trafficability.

Grazing management of pastures is also important. Rotational grazing can reduce the rate by which a paddock becomes "horse-sick". Rotational grazing is when grazing is followed by a period of rest. The length of this rest is normally determined by the growth rate of pasture (2 weeks grazing and 6 weeks rest is a good general rule). Cross or mixed grazing with sheep and cattle offers advantages for pasture and hygiene management. Pasture management can also include slashing to remove poor quality clumps of pasture, which recover and grow pasture of improved quality that is more palatable to horses. The flow chart below provides a simple management plan.

http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/horses/feed-requirements-of-horses/grazing-and-feeding/grazing-management-for-horses

http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2013/01/09/graze-anatomy-handling-horses-on-small-acreage/#axzz4jrWnZHH1

http://www.thehorse.com/articles/26829/multi-species-grazing-horses-and-cows-and-goats-oh-my

Horses from different backgrounds were kept in the stable and this is reflected in the results of isotope analyses. Horses were fed meadow grasses as well as woody vegetation, millet, oat, and less commonly hemp, wheat and rye.

Medieval Horse Stable: The Results of Multi Proxy Interdisciplinary Research - Medievalists.net

medievalists.net

Horses & Horsemanship

Lucy Worsley - Reins of Power - The Art of Horse Dancing
https://youtu.be/G7CUQqLcDTY?t=13s

https://aeon.co/ideas/centaur-or-fop-how-horsemanship-made-the-englishman-a-man

Mules, Hinnies

What medieval animal is seldom used today? > .

A mule is the offspring of a male donkey (jack) and a female horse (mare). Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two first generation hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny, which is the offspring of a female donkey (jenny) and a male horse (stallion).

The size of a mule and work to which it is put depend largely on the breeding of the mule's female parent (dam). Mules can be lightweight, medium weight or when produced from draft horse mares, of moderately heavy weight. Mules are reputed to be more patient, hardy and long-lived than horses and are described as less obstinate and more intelligent than donkeys.

The mule is valued because, while it has the size and ground-covering ability of its dam, it is stronger than a horse of similar size and inherits the endurance and disposition of the donkey sire, tending to require less food than a horse of similar size. Mules also tend to be more independent than most domesticated equines other than its parental species, the donkey.
..
In general, a mule can be packed with dead weight of up to 20% of its body weight, or approximately 90 kg (198 lb).

A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a fetus, is called a "molly" or "Molly mule", though the term is sometimes used to refer to female mules in general. Pregnancy is rare, but can occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer. A male mule is properly called a horse mule, though often called a john mule, which is the correct term for a gelded mule. A young male mule is called a mule colt, and a young female is called a mule filly.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0TvOSu_xLQ .

----

A hinny is a domestic equine hybrid that is the offspring of a male horse, a stallion, and a female donkey, a jenny. It is the reciprocal cross to the more common mule, which is the product of a male donkey, a jack, and a female horse, a mare. The hinny is distinctive from the mule both in physiology and temperament as a consequence of genomic imprinting.

Hinnies are the reciprocal cross to the more common mule. Comparatively, the average hinny has a smaller stature, shorter ears, stronger legs, and a thicker mane than the average mule. The distinct phenotypes of the hinny and the mule are partly attributable to genomic imprinting—an element of epigenetic inheritance.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinny .

Pigeon - Rock dove

Pigeons - Rock Dove

Commonly known as Pigeons, Rock Doves are often considered a nuisance city and farm bird.

Introduced into North America from Europe long ago, these birds have been associated with humans for thousands of years.

Rock Doves are thought to have been the first domesticated bird, raised for meat as far back as the time of the ancient Egyptians.

Mating Habits
Pairs are monogamous, often breeding in consecutive seasons for as long as both birds of a pair live.

Most will attempt to raise several broods each year. Sometimes as many as four or five broods will be raised in a single year.

Nesting Habits

The nesting habits of these birds are a bit unique. The male chooses a site in view of the female, selecting one stick and bringing it back, lays it in front of his mate.

The female who stays at the nesting site accepts the sticks the male brings to her and places them underneath her.

The nest of the these birds can be found along building ledges, rafters, beams, and under bridges or inside barns.

The nest is saucer-like in shape and made of stems, and leaves.
The female may sit on the nest a day or two before the first egg is laid. Generally 2 white eggs are laid. Both the male and female will incubate the eggs although the female does the incubation during the night.

Incubation last for about 18 days and the young will leave the nest in 25 to 29 days after hatching.

Initially, the young are fed "pigeon milk" (regurgitated food from the parents crops). Over a 10 day period the young are fed increasing amounts of solid food such as caterpillars.

Feeding Habits
Pigeons feed on the ground and can be attracted to platform feeders. Offering crumbs, cracked corn and other grain seeds will attract these birds.

BASIC PIGEON INFORMATION

The bird we're discussing is the domestic pigeon, (Columba livia), which has been bred for various purposes for three thousand years or more. It's descended from a cliff dwelling Eurasian species (the rock dove or rock pigeon) with many close relatives, the closest of which is likely the stock dove (Columba oenas).Various forms of the domestic pigeon exist. Some are bred for their flying abilities. These include tumbling or rolling (somersaulting in the air), diving (coming down from extreme heights at high rates of speed and this diving may or may not be combined with aerobatic maneuvers); and homing (returning at sustained speeds of 45-50 mph to the home loft from distances up to 600 miles). Others are bred for their voice (Trumpeters and Laughers), their great beauty, their feather ornaments or uniqueness. The Fantail, Jacobin, Wing Pigeons and Swallows, as well as the various Color Pigeons stand not only as testaments to the breeder's art, but also as full-fledged contributions to humanity's love of beauty. (Check your local library for: The Encyclopedia of Pigeon Breeds by Wendell Levi or Fancy Pigeons by Erich Muller & Ludvig Schrag to see hundreds of these breeds in color.) You can also check out my links page and look for the links to Color Pigeon clubs both here and abroad. American contributions to the pigeon world include the King - both show and utility, the Domestic Flight and the Texan.

While all domestic pigeons are edible, most of today's show forms are seldom bred for food. However, pigeons are still bred for the table and such birds (Squabbing Pigeons) are normally much bigger than most show or flying breeds. These birds are bred for rapidity of production and size of dressed squab. The largest domestic breed, the Runt or Roman pigeon may reach weights of up to 3-5 lb. (1.5-2.25 kg) and have a three foot (1 meter) wing span. In the U.S., though, it is seldom bred in its pure state for squabbing purposes. It has become more a show bird. The most common squabbing breeds are the Texan, an auto-sexed breed,( i.e., a breed in which sex can be determined at hatched because of the different colors of the cock and hen as a result of the action of Faded, an allele of Almond.) the Utility King and the Utility Carneau (car-no). Anyone interested in further information on utility breeds may want to check out Wendell Levi's books, The Pigeon and Making Pigeons Pay.

ADDENDUM - 04/98
A few of you have noted that I forgot to include some very basic stuff, like how to tell males from females. You're right. When I remember back to my first month or so with the birds, it was very confusing (sometimes, it still is.) Anyway, below is an answer I wrote to one gentleman who asked that question. Hope it helps.

Question: How do I tell males from females? Answer: It's a harder question than you know. Trouble is, it's fairly easy to spot sex differences in homer or roller type birds and a lot harder in some of the fancy show breeds - Basic differences are size; cocks are usually a bit larger and more robust; hens a bit finer, especially in the head. Best differences are behavioral or, occasionally, color, e.g., an ash-red (brick red) bird with any black flecking in the ashy color of the wings or tail is invariably a male. Birds without such black flecking may be either, but about 70% will be female just because of the breeding practices of most guys. Behavioral differences are easy to note once you've gotten to know your birds. Cocks strut, coo and spread their tail into a full half moon shape and often turn a full circle when they do; females will swell their crops with some air but usually stand at a more upright angle (45 degrees or so) when they do it, as opposed to the cock who almost bows to the floor. In a mated pair, cocks sit on the nest from about 10 am to 5 pm; hens the rest of the time. Cocks drink by sticking their beak in the water almost up to their eyes and gulping; hens - except when desperately thirsty ususally tend to drink by sticking on the first half of their beak in the water and almost sip it, as opposed to the cock's gulp. Hope this helps.

Breeding & Incubation
The domestic pigeon normally reaches sexual maturity at about five to six months of age. Depending on the local temperatures and food supply, they may breed all year round. Many fanciers, however, prevent them from breeding continuously -- either by separating the sexes, or by letting mated pairs sit on wooden (dummy) eggs.

Once mated, the male (cock) will begin to hunt for a suitable place to make a nest and rear young. Domestic pigeons do not nest in trees as do many other doves. They are descendants of a cliff dwelling species and prefer their nest to be on a solid surface. Most fanciers (breeders) also provide a nest bowl and some nesting materials (pine needles, tobacco stems, etc.) for the birds to use. The nest bowl helps to ensure that the eggs do not roll out from under the pair and chill.
Both male and female take part in the incubation and rearing of the young. Females lay their first egg about 10 days after mating, usually in the late afternoon or early evening. A second egg is laid about 44 hours later. Two eggs is the normal clutch size. Incubation commences with the laying of the second egg. The male (cock) bird usually broods from about 10 a.m. until 5 p.m., the female (hen) the rest of the time. Hatching normally occurs 18 days from start of incubation. Youngsters are fed by both parents -- and here is where pigeons/doves are unique. The parents need not even leave the nest to hunt down insects, etc., as do many other genera or species. Instead, they feed their young on a glandular crop secretion called "pigeon milk". It is not actually milk, and there is no lactose in it, but its production is stimulated by prolactin, the same hormone which stimulates milk production in mammals. Pigeon milk looks more like a cream-colored cottage cheese and is a high protein food which is fed to the youngsters from hatching till about ten days old when regurgitated grain and grit replace it as the major food source. Domestic pigeons usually have a seamless aluminum identity band placed on their leg at about ten days of age. This band is coded with year of hatch, club identification and a number. Youngsters fledge at about 35 days. However, when the young are about eighteen days old, the parents will often commence to renest. It is not uncommon for one round of youngsters to be fledging at the same time that next are hatching.

Food/Housing
Pigeons are grain eaters. Most feed stores stock an adequate mix for them. Depending upon the time of year and whether breeding youngsters or not, the birds usually get a mix which ranges between 12% and 17% protein. Protein percentages higher than that for long periods of time often lead to gout or other problems for the birds. Pigeons also need a mineral grit mixture (chicken grit is not suitable for pigeons). This grit mixture, too, can be purchased at most feed stores. Pigeons also need clean water daily. All three items are usually fed separately. Pigeons appreciate green food: romaine lettuce, etc., but this is not necessary and millions of birds have been reared without it. It is essential that every effort is made to keep the water, feed and grit clean with no contamination allowed. If this is done, pigeons are extremely hardy animals. If not, the breeder is leaving his stock open to various bacteriological and parasitic infections. But then, this is just common sense. Unless you're a dung beetle larva, the idea of fecal pellets for breakfast is not particularly appealing.

The most important requirement as to pigeon housing is that the interior always be kept dry. Dampness brings disease. Pigeons are not ducks. Accommodations for pigeons range from luxurious racing lofts which costs upwards of a half million dollars to converted tool sheds. So long as feed is kept clean and the interior dry, each houses the birds just fine. The Levi books mentioned above, as well as others available from pigeon supply companies, show many ideas for loft construction.

𝕸 Transport, Travel

Battleship - 18th C ..

Beachley Peninsula, Severn Estuary ..

Bristol, River Avon ..

Daily Life ..

Equines - Medieval ..

Europe-Asia - Geographic Boundaries ➧

Global Empires ..

Gloucester, River Severn ..

Handcart ..

Inns, Taverns, Alehouses ..

London, River Thames ..

Magellan - Age of Exploration ..

Navigation - lodestone & magnetic compasses ..

Peregrination & Pilgrimage ..

Pigmentation →

River Crossings ..

Rivers - Major Rivers of England ..

Rivers of Midlands ..

Saddles, tack ..

Severn Bore ..
Shipbuilding - wood ..

Silk Road ➧

Society & Raids - Viking ➧

Terrain→Technology - Impact on Travel ⇼
Thames Sailing Barge ..

Trade Routes - Ancient to Modern ..

Transport ..

Trow ..

Mapping Challenges ↠
Navigation - Natural ↠
Paper Towns & Cartographic Projections ↠

Terrain

● Chokepoints - Trade, Resource Logistics ..

Battleship - 18th C

18th Century Sailing Battleship - Animagraffs > .

Coracle building

. Making Coracle .

Coracles (from the Welsh "cwrwgl") have a history dating back thousands of years. The coracle was originally covered with animal skins and in some countries they are still made this way. In Wales they are now skinned with calico which is waterproofed using a bitumastic paint.

http://www.data-wales.co.uk/coracle1.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coracle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TiBUCPHjU_8

Magellan - Age of Exploration

.Magellan's Voyage: Why the Explorer Gets Too Much Credit > .

Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães, Fernando de Magallanes; 4 February 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer and Hispanic Monarchy's subject from 1518. He is best known for having planned and led the 1519 Spanish expedition to the East Indies across the Pacific to open a maritime trade route in which he discovered the interoceanic passage bearing thereafter his name and achieving the first European navigation from the Atlantic to Asia. This expedition, where Magellan was killed in battle against the natives of Mactan Island (present day Philippines) in 1521, resulted in the first circumnavigation of the Earth when one of the expedition's two remaining ships eventually returned to Spain in 1522.

Born 4 February 1480 into a family of minor Portuguese nobility, Magellan became a skilled sailor and naval officer and was in service of the Portuguese Crown in Asia. Confronted to some criminal offences and after King Manuel I of Portugal refused to support his plan to reach the Maluku Islands (the "Spice Islands") by sailing westwards around the American continent, Magellan left Portugal and proposed the expedition to King Charles I of Spain who accepted it. For this move, Magellan was henceforth considered by many in Portugal as a traitor and was never to return. He adopted the name of Fernando de Magellanes and settled in Seville where he married and fathered two children; and from where he organised the expedition. In consideration to the allegiance to the Hispanic Monarchy, Magellan was appointed in 1518 admiral of the Spanish Fleet to command the expedition, the five-ships Armada of Molucca, as well as Commander of the Order of Santiago, one of the highest military ranks of the Spanish Empire.

Granted with special powers and privileges by the King, he headed the Armada from Sanlucar de Barrameda south through the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern coast of South America down to the Patagonia. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, they made it through the Strait of Magellan into the Mar del Sur which he renamed the "Peaceful Sea" (the modern Pacific Ocean). The expedition reached Guam and shortly after, the Philippine islands, where Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan in April 1521. Under the command of captain Juan Sebastian Elcano, the expedition later reached the Spice Islands and, to navigate back to Spain and avoid seizure by the Portuguese, the two remaining ships split, one attempting unsuccessfully to reach New Spain sailing eastwards across the Pacific while the other, commanded by Elcano, sailed westwards via the Indian Ocean and up the Atlantic coast of Africa to finally arrive at the expedition's port of departure, completing the first circuit of the globe.

While at the Kingdom of Portugal's service, Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east (from 1505 to 1511–1512). By visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history.

Peregrination & Pilgrimage

.Did medieval peasants travel? - Modern History > .

Rivers of Midlands

Severn
1 - Tern?
2 - Cound Brook?
3 - Worfe
4 - Mor Brook? Borle Brook
5 - Stour
6 - Salwarpe
7 - Teme
Warwickshire Avon
8 - Arrow?
9 - Stour?
10 - Alne?
Severn
11 - Chelt?
12 - Leadon
Thames (Isis)
13 - Coln
14 - Leech
15 - Windrush
16 - Evenlode
17 - Cherwell
18 - Thame

Granite Trough

Plug and feather, also known as plugs and wedges, feather and wedges, wedges and shims and feather and tare refers to a technique and a three-piece tool set used to split stone. Each set consists of a metal wedge (the plug), and two shims (the feathers). The feathers are wide at the bottom, and tapered and curved at the top. When the two feathers are placed on either side of the plug, the combined width of the set is the same at both ends.

Variations of the plug and feather method have been used since ancient Egyptian times. With this simple mechanical technique, the stone was first measured and marked. Bronze plugs and feathers were then driven into grooves which had been previously cut with a chisel and mallet.This was the most common method used by the Egyptians for quarrying limestone and sandstone. Evidence of this method for cutting obelisks in the quarries of Aswan can clearly be seen. The technique was also used by the Romans.

On Dartmoor, Devon, England, the process is known as feather and tare and it was used from around 1800 to split the large blocks of granite found on the ground there. It was, for instance, used to make the rails for the Haytor Granite Tramway in 1820.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_feather

Lime burning

Lime Kiln playlist contents.

Calculating capacity of kiln in video 1 (based on ratio of 10:3 tons limestone:coal):

Specific gravities:

Limestone, broken 1554 kg/cu.m.

Coal, Bituminous, broken 833 kg/cu.m.

(anthracite would be too expensive for this task)

1 cu m = 35.3147 cu.ft.

Converting from kg to uk tons

1554 kg = 1.52945694 uk tons/35.3147 cu.ft.

833 kg = 0.874959603 uk ton/35.3147 cu.ft.

So,

60 tons of broken limestone fills 1385.4 cu.ft.
15 tons of broken bituminous coal fills 605.4 cu.ft.

At 56% of the weight of limestone (based on the atomic numbers CaCO3 versus CaO), each of the 2 larger kilns would yield 25 tons of quicklime.

(Presumably, the BBC researchers found the figures for the capacity of both kilns at Morwellham Quay.)