Medieval: Normans

The Chained Library > .

Hereford Cathedral offers a unique historical treasure – The Chained Library where 229 Medieval manuscripts including the 8th century Hereford Gospel as well as books from later centuries are preserved, each chained for security to the Library shelves as they were in the 17th century. While such libraries previously existed throughout Europe only the Hereford Chained Library has survived.

On 6 January 1066 Harold Godwinson was crowned Harold II, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England.

Edward the Confessor had died the previous day, having suffered a series of strokes in late 1065 that caused him to lie in a coma for much of the remainder of his life. Edward died without an heir, and this sparked a succession crisis that culminated in the Norman invasion of England later that year.

The Normans claimed that Edward had promised the throne of England to William of Normandy. This is reported by various Norman chroniclers, and the Bayeux Tapestry even shows Harold swearing an oath on sacred relics to support William’s claim to the English throne after he was shipwrecked in 1064. The reliability of the Tapestry’s account is debated by historians, especially since it goes against the English tradition that the new king would be chosen by the Witenaġemot – the ‘meeting of wise men’.

Whatever the truth of Edward’s promise and Harold’s meeting with William, Edward apparently regained consciousness and entrusted his kingdom to Harold for ‘protection’ shortly before he died. When the Witenaġemot met on 6 January they elected Harold to be the new king, and his coronation took place the same day. Historians generally believe that this took place in Westminster Abbey, which had been built by Edward and was consecrated just a few days earlier on 28 December 1065.

Hearing of Harold’s accession to the English throne, William of Normandy soon began preparing to invade. Harold reigned for barely nine months before being killed at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October by the Norman invaders.

.1066-9-28 - William of Normandy lands in England - 28th September 1066 > .

1066-12-25: William of Normandy = William the Conqueror, crowned King - HiPo > .

Viking Invasion & Norman Conquest of England 1066 - BazB >> .

On 25th December 1066, William of Normandy was crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.

William defeated the English king Harold II at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, but was forced to fight on after a number of English nobles nominated Edgar the Ætheling as the new king. When William led his Norman troops across the Thames at Wallingford in early December they were met by Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who just a few weeks earlier had elected Edgar as king. However, he immediately abandoned Edgar and submitted to William, who soon marched to Berkhamsted where Edgar himself gave up his claim to the throne.

William’s coronation in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day saw both Norman and English nobility in attendance. Norman troops were stationed outside the Abbey and in the surrounding streets in case of trouble while the coronation itself was conducted by Geoffrey, the Bishop of Coutances, and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York. The account of Orderic Vitalis, the Anglo-French chronicler of Norman England, tells how the assembled nobles ‘shouted out with one voice’ when asked if they agreed to William becoming King of England.

The troops outside mistook these cheers for a fight between the Normans and English inside the church and set fire to some of the English houses nearby before charging into the Abbey itself. The arrival of the troops panicked the coronation guests, many of whom fled the Abbey while the bishops frantically finished the ceremony amid the commotion. After Edward the Confessor and Harold Godwinson, William became the third person to wear the crown of England that year.

14 October 1066 | The Brutal Battle that Killed King Harold of England 2:24

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jurwgaFyuLU

The Battle of Hastings 1066 - The Normans - BBC Two
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oLy1LskT6Y8

1066, Normans, Domesday
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLtakTnKQQMCwAB8Aw_8oK_RK98FBvtnrq*

1066 Harald Hardrada ..

Ж 1066

.1066-1-6 Coronation of Harold Godwinson (Harold II), last Anglo-Saxon king > .

Viking Invasion & Norman Conquest of England 1066 - BazB >> .

Norman Conquest

Monarchy examines the history of kingship in England from William to Conqueror on through the House of Norman. William seizes the throne after the battle of Hastings and is crowned in Westminster Abbey in London. He suppresses the Anglo-Saxons and consolidates his holdings by building fortifications throughout England. William Rufus the second son of William the Conqueror becomes king after his father's death. Disliked by the Church for his irreligious ways, he is killed by an arrow while hunting in the New Forest. After his death, his brother Henry crowns himself king. He consolidates his power by reviving the popular traditions of the Anglo-Saxon kings. After the death of his son, Henry appoints his daughter Matilda as his successor but after his death his nephew Stephen seizes the throne. Eventually this sparks a civil war which ends when Stephen agrees to appoint her son Henry as the heir to the throne.
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1021789/?ref_=ttep_ep3
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0431550/

For better, for worse - μόνος ἄρχω - monarchy
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLs5H4V1x-xBiT1yW-MZLVGxc9mcIzzXPh

Complete Bayeaux Tapestry > .

The Animated Bayeux Tapestry > .https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvfxjXzSjGg

1066, Normans, Domesday

Why William won at the Battle of Hastings > .

1066, Normans, Domesday - Tony Blake
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLtakTnKQQMCwAB8Aw_8oK_RK98FBvtnrq

1066 a year to conquer england - Allthemed Docs 2
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL1jaH3Hh_0mV-NG09RsoLU7BT4ndBzBat
1.

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC_lm3ELScscoQ16v6Syx7aQ/playlists
2.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKlqRt8NP4IdvUHestJWQzg/playlists

1066 Harald Hardrada ..

Life of Medieval Serf

It Sucked to Be a Medieval Serf > .

Medieval Peasant Women - Work, Food, Life - HiHi > .

Church and Crown to Parliament

The Early Middle Ages, 284--1000 - Yale >> .

Henry II and Becket > .

Medieval Superstition - Kempley Church > .

Monastic Life > .

Christina of Markyate was born with the name Theodora in Huntingdon, England, about 1096–98 and died about 1155. She was an anchoress and Prioress who came from a wealthy Anglo-Saxon family trying to accommodate with the Normans at that time. She became head of a community of nuns

St Mary's Church, Kempley.
This simple Norman church in Gloucestershire, remote from the village it once served, has the oldest timber roof of any building in England. Its greatest glory, however, comes from having some of the best preserved medieval wall paintings in Britain. Those in the chancel are particularly rare, dating from the early 12th century, and are the most complete set of Romanesque frescos in northern Europe.

The paintings are a vivid reminder of a time when church interiors were covered in such paintings. They tell stories from the Bible, depict the lives of saints, and show terrifying visions of demons and eternal damnation.

Magna Carta > .
In Our Time: The Magna Carta > .
Magna Carta - anth >> .
Magna Carta - 1215 - sh >> .
First Parliaments > .
Great Pestilence - Black Death arch >> .Peasants' Revolt > .
Peasants' Revolt - Great Rising of 1381 - arch >> .
Crime, Punishment, Government - rw >> .
Crime & Punishment - sh >> . Eight cases from across history which still shape the law today (
The Case of Proclamations, 1610 and later).

Medieval Church - sh >> .
Medieval Society - sh >> .

Luttrell Psalter & Books of Hours - sh >> .

Dissolution of the Monasteries > .
Greyfriars and Blackfriars > .
In Our Time Playlist >> .
Medieval Feudalism to Post-Industrial Capitalism >> .

The Court of Augmentations, also called Augmentation Court or simply The Augmentation, was established during the reign of King Henry VIII of England along with three lesser courts (those of General Surveyors, First Fruit and Tenths, and Wards and Liveries) following the dissolution of the monasteries. Its primary function was to gain better control over the land and finances formerly held by the Roman Catholic Church in the kingdom. It was incorporated into the Exchequer in 1554 as the augmentation office.

King Henry VIII, the Mind of a Tyrant: 01 > .
King Henry VIII, the Mind of a Tyrant: 02 > .

7. Late Medieval Religion and Its Critics > .
8. Reformation and Division, 1530-1558 > .
Early Modern England with Keith E. Wrightson - Yale >> .

Slow shift from anti-Lutheranism to using the Reformation > .

Course | History of the World to 1500 CE - Columbia >> .
Course | History of the World Since 1500 CE - Columbia >> .
Bilkent: Medieval Europe (500-1500) | CosmoLearning History >> .
European Civiliization (1648-1945) with John Merriman - Yale >> .
The Civil War and Reconstruction with David Blight - Yale >> .

The English activist John Lilburne (1615-57) is now remembered as one of the leading Levellers – campaigners for a government based on popular sovereignty, two centuries before the advent of mass representative democracy in Europe. But that was only part of a longer public career in which he took on every government he lived under, displaying extraordinary courage and fortitude, and in the process championing legal rights that are important to us all.

Common Law

Milestones Medieval Law
http://www.medievalists.net/2018/04/most-important-events-middle-ages/ .
https://www.historyextra.com/period/norman/10-medieval-dates-you-need-to-know/ .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages .
http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/middleageschron.html .
http://www.medievalists.net/2017/05/10-milestones-medieval-law/ .

The legal culture of England – both medieval and modern – is to say the least peculiar when regarded through the prism of Roman law. One peculiar element in this tradition is the commitment to the unwritten “law”: "Unwritten Verities: The Making of England’s Vernacular Legal Culture, 1463-1549"
http://www.medievalhistories.com/unwritten-verities-the-making-of-englands-vernacular-legal-culture-1463-1549/

Legal Landmarks - HiHu >> .

Frankish-Norman inquest system

William the Conqueror improved Germanic court procedure by introducing the Frankish-Norman inquest to England. It required local judges to rely on opinions of community leaders who served the court as jurors. Their testimony was critical to civil law decisions. The success of the inquest system encouraged the Crown to use it also for administrative purposes.

Before Northern Italian law schools began turning out a flood of graduates, reliable administrators were hard to find. By mid-12th century, the English monarchy was accustomed to using unpaid jurors to testify on income of local landlords, thus providing evidence for tax levies.

When Henry II became King of England in 1154, he inherited a legal system made up of Germanic and feudal elements that had been fused by royal judges into a common law. This system relied on pleadings that made it archaic compared to the civil law spreading throughout Continental Europe. English law, at that time, did not know the concept of equity. There were no means of suspending a law in the interest of justice. Common Law procedure in criminal trials was biased against the defendants, especially if they came from an inferior social class.

As a cosmopolitan Frenchman and one of the best educated kings of the 12th century, Henry II was aware that Common Law compared unfavourably with the Roman system. His judges, trained in canonical procedures, were not blind to its imperfections. But Henry II decided against replacing his inherited Common Law with Civil Law principles and institutions operating at that time on the Continent. Common Law was in place, it was popular, and above all, it was cheap.

English judges were not well-paid civil servants as under the Roman system. Common Law provided a steady revenue from fines and required less administration. It also allowed the Crown to use unpaid juries for local administrative purposes with a minimum of bureaucratic personnel. Common Law, as Cantor said, was truly “self-government at the king’s command.”

Had English Common Law not already functioned in 1154, Henry II might have adopted the Roman system of centralized law and administration as his French cousins did at the end of the 12th century. But Henry II satisfied himself with improving English legal procedure through the expanded use of juries in civil suits. He introduced the grand jury indictment in criminal pleas.

Although Common Law was less conducive to royal absolutism than the Justinian Code, its preservation was convenient and inexpensive to Henry II. The king believed he could achieve practical absolutism by exploiting the existing law institutions.

In the 13th century, the English Common Law assumed its full institutional form with the development of the jury verdict. English Common Law preserved the idea that the law of the land resides both in the legislative power of the king as well as the community. English Law was not an expression of royal will. Thus, while the Justinian Code stated “The will of the Emperor has the force of law,” in English juristic theory, however, the king, like any other member of the community, was subject to the common law.

http://www.medievalists.net/2013/11/why-roman-law-did-not-succeed-in-england/

Common law: Why the Anglo-Saxon system persisted under Anglo-Norman rulers

Justinian’s Corpus Juris Civilis was well known in England at that time. Scholars of the Northern Italian universities taught in England. The royal administrators of the reign of Henry I (1100–1135) were educated in France or Italy. Judges during the reign of Henry II (King of England 1154–1189) were usually churchmen familiar with Romano-canonical procedures and principles.

Anglo-Norman rulers had actually no interest in preserving Germanic legal traditions that were opposed to a strong central government but rather based on community power. Legal absolutism and centralism, enshrined in the Justinian Code, actually would have better conformed to the policy of the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of England than did the traditional Germanic law system. Henry II — like his contemporaries Emperor Barbarossa of Germany and the Capetian monarchs of France — favoured central authority. Thus, Henry II might logically have imposed the new civil law on England.

However, in the 12th century, the Anglo-Norman monarchy was way ahead of other European governments in the development of strong, centralized institutions. Between 1066 and 1135, the founding period of royal power in England, the Roman laws codified by Justinian, and the new administrative personnel for the royal bureaucracies that the Italian law schools were to provide, did not yet exist. The Crown, therefore, had to make do with laws at hand, although they were less conducive to royal absolutism than the laws that later became available under Roman (Civil) Law.

Consequently, Anglo-Norman rulers allowed the continuance of *shire courts, a refinement of the early “Hundred Courts,” descendants of old Germanic folkmoots. English courts were dominated by prominent local men. Regional Lords acted as judges. Pleadings were oral. Until about 1214, trial by ordeal still took place to decide innocence in criminal proceedings.

The English Crown exercised supervision over local courts by dispatching itinerant, unpaid judges to preside during assizes. One function of such judges was to collect fines for the Crown. Under feudal law the king presided, but did not dominate his Royal Courts. Changes in legislation were usually made with the consent of the magnates.
http://www.medievalists.net/2013/11/why-roman-law-did-not-succeed-in-england/

Milestones Medieval Law

http://www.medievalists.net/2018/04/most-important-events-middle-ages/ .
https://www.historyextra.com/period/norman/10-medieval-dates-you-need-to-know/ .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages .
http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/middleageschron.html .
http://www.medievalists.net/2017/05/10-milestones-medieval-law/ .

(T 000 L&G LAW Anglo-Saxon Common Law, Henry I, Anglo-Normans)

Why Roman Law Did Not Succeed in England - Medievalists.net

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Diplomacy, Alliances - medieval

How did Medieval Diplomacy Work? > .

Drawn, hanged, and quartered

Execution of Hugh le Despenser (the younger), 1st Lord Despenser (c. 1286 – 24 November 1326.)

Grisly, superstitious, and inhumane punishments:

In the third volume of his Institutes, Edward Coke (1552-1634) writes that the condemned trader also loses all his property and titles.

The first recorded instance of a convicted felon's being drawn and quartering was in 1241, and the last on May 1, 1820, when John Brunt, William Davidson, James Ings, Arthur Thistlewood and Richard Tidd were hanged and beheaded (the government having commuted the other traditionally inhumane components of the sentence).

William Wallace was drawn and quartered in 1305. Subsequently, his head was placed on a pole on London Bridge. His quartered body, in four pieces, was sent to Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick, Perth and Sterling.

In response to the trial of Guy Fawkes in 1603, Coke recorded this description of traditional execution methods for treason:

"After a traitor has had his just trial, and is convicted ... he shall have his judgment: to be drawn to the place of execution from his prison, as being not worthy anymore to tread upon the face of earth whereof he was made. Also, for that he has been retrograde to nature, therefore is he drawn backward ....

"And whereas God has made the head of man the highest and most supreme part, as being his chief grace and ornament, he must be drawn with his head declining downward and lying so near the ground as may be, being thought unfit to take benefit of the common air.

"For which cause also he shall be strangled, being hanged up by the neck between heaven and earth as deemed unworthy of both or either, as likewise, that the eyes of men may behold and their hearts condemn him.

"Then he is to be cut down alive, and to have his privy parts cut off and burnt before his face as being unworthily begotten and unfit to lead any generation after him. His bowels ... taken out and burnt, who inwardly had conceived and harboured such horrible treason.

"After, to have his head cut off, which had imagined the mischief.

"And lastly, his body to be quartered and the quarters set up in some high and eminent place, to the view and detestation of men, and to become prey for the fowls of the air.

"And this is a reward due to traitors whose heart be hardened. For it is a psychic of state and government to let out our corrupt blood from the heart."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Despenser_the_younger .

Crimes ..

Arundel Castle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Abb6KVNj_RU .

Ludlow Castle, Shropshire - mortar & building techniques - HiHi > .

Castles - medieval

Guédelon > .

S Guédelon - 25 years to build 13th C castle with period tools - Kirsten > .

Ludlow Castle, Shropshire - mortar & building techniques - HiHi > .

Brochs - Scotland ➧

Castles - medieval ..
Castles - Secrets of the Castle & Château Guédelon ..

Motte & Bailey Castle ..

Guédelon and medieval castles
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CboJzrDhoSk

[Medieval] Castles - Functions & Characteristics (1000-1300) - MHV
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhzsM2SFoeQ
Medieval Castles - Elements of Fortifications
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IghzU9Dr6VU

Secrets of the Castle - Guédelon documentary, Caerphilly, Conwy, Kenilworth - siege engines - BBC, Battle Castle - archanth
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLrYzzr8yja6Fv4glws0Sqf3GBLXL_El8W

Medieval Warfare: Castles of War
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCpYM0jg1d5OpPWcTwIxVsz6F4JJxWFnr

Harlech Castle, Wales ..

Torsion siege engine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_siege_engine
Siege engine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_engine

What are the tactical advantages of a trebuchet over a catapult, and vice versa?
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-tactical-advantages-of-a-trebuchet-over-a-catapult-and-vice-versa .

Siege Tower ➧

British DNA

British DNA ........

"There was not a single “Celtic” genetic group. In fact the Celtic parts of the UK (Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and Cornwall) are among the most different from each other genetically. For example, the Cornish are much more similar genetically to other English groups than they are to the Welsh or the Scots.

There are separate genetic groups in Cornwall and Devon, with a division almost exactly along the modern county boundary.

The majority of eastern, central and southern England is made up of a single, relatively homogeneous, genetic group with a significant DNA contribution from Anglo-Saxon migrations (10-40% of total ancestry). This settles a historical controversy in showing that the Anglo-Saxons intermarried with, rather than replaced, the existing populations.

The population in Orkney emerged as the most genetically distinct, with 25% of DNA coming from Norwegian ancestors. This shows clearly that the Norse Viking invasion (9th century) did not simply replace the indigenous Orkney population.

The Welsh appear more similar to the earliest settlers of Britain after the last ice age than do other people in the UK.

There is no obvious genetic signature of the Danish Vikings, who controlled large parts of England (“The Danelaw”) from the 9th century.

There is genetic evidence of the effect of the Landsker line – the boundary between English-speaking people in south-west Pembrokeshire (sometimes known as “Little England beyond Wales”) and the Welsh speakers in the rest of Wales, which persisted for almost a millennium."

DNA study shows Celts are not a unique genetic group - BBC News
http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-31905764

DNA Deciphers Roots of Modern Europeans - The New York Times
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/16/science/dna-deciphers-roots-of-modern-europeans.html?

BRITAIN ANGLO-SAXON GENETIC

2015, Nature FULL:
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v519/n7543/full/nature14230.html
2015: http://www.heritagedaily.com/2015/03/first-fine-scale-genetic-map-british-isles/107039 2015: http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/03/18/4200057.htm
2015: http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/07/19/1690600.htm
2015: http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-31905764 2011: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/727/
2002: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/7/1008.full

GENETICS ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
"The Anglo-Saxons, Germanic tribes who lived in present-day Germany, northern Holland and Denmark, invaded Britain in 450 AD after the fall of the Roman empire.

They conquered England but were unable to penetrate far into the Celtic fringes of what are now Wales and Scotland. They coincidentally prompted an exodus of Britons to what is now Brittany, France.

The population of England at that time was probably around two million while the number of Anglo-Saxons was minute: the lowest estimate puts the number of migrants at less than 10,000 some 200 years after the invasion, although others put it at more than 100,000."

http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/07/19/1690600.htm

2011: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/727/
and 2006, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/727/1/17_-_Whence_came_the_English.pdf?DDD5+

DNA study shows Celts are not a unique genetic group - BBC News

𝕸 Land Use in Britain

Ancient Roman, Medieval English Crops ➧

Dissolution & Fountains Abbey ..

Dissolution of the Monasteries ..

Land Use in Britain - Paleolithic to Agricultural Revolution ..
Land Use in Britain – Stone Age to Iron Age ..
Land Use in Britain - Romans and Vikings ..
Land Use in Britain - Normans bring Feudalism ..
Land Use in Britain - Early Modern through Agricultural Revolution ..
Land Use in Britain - The Agricultural Revolution ..
Land Use in Britain - Bibliography ..

Land Enclosure - Agricultural Monopolism ..

Life - Anglo-Saxon Britain ➧

Life - Medieval Peasants ..

Land Use in Britain - Paleolithic to Agricultural Revolution

Overview:

(For what it's worth, this is an essay that I submitted aeons ago for a Geography course. I might tweak it later.)

Britain has been occupied by man since Paleolithic times. Earliest British agriculture began around 4500 BC. A series of immigrations and invasions affected the populace, the social structure, and the English language. The shifting social structure influenced the utilization of land. The population had expanded to the brink of agricultural crisis by 1500 AD. Spurred by need and greed, agricultural innovation burgeoned after the sixteenth century.

Sections:

Stone Age to Iron Age:
Stone Age.
Bronze Age (around 3000 B.C. to 600 B.C.).
Iron Age (600 B.C. to the first century A.D.).
Climatic trends figure.

Romans and Vikings:
Roman Britain (43 B.C. to 442 A.D.).
Some impacts of man on the environment by 500 AD.
Anglo-Saxon and Norse Invasions (fifth to ninth centuries AD).

Normans bring Feudalism:

The Norman Invasion (1066 AD).
The Domesday Book.
The Manorial economy.
Villages and agriculture

Beyond Early Modern: After 1500 AD.

Farming Systems and Landholding.
The rhythm and grind of agriculture.
Regional agriculture and prevalent obstacles to food production.
Enclosure and Engrossing.
Markets.
The ingredients of agricultural revolution.

Land Use in Britain (full version) – The Agricultural Revolution.

Land utilization in Britain: Agricultural Revolution in the five hundred years following 1500 AD.
Landholding, tenures, and estates.
Enclosure and Engrossing.
Markets.
Regional agriculture and prevalent obstacles to food production.
The rhythm and grind of agriculture.
British agricultural changes, 1500-1750.
The ingredients of agricultural revolution.
Footnotes.
Endnotes.

Land Use in Britain – Bibliography.

Early occupation:

Figure 1: An approximate correlation of climatic and technological trends

Date	Climatic trends & pollen zones (PZ)	Agricultural developments & vegetation trends.
43 AD	Rapid cooling Sub-Atlantic Warmer PZ VIII Marked cyclical deterioration Sub-Boreal Cooling PZ VIIb Very warm and humid with high rainfall Atlantic PZ VIIa Increasing wetness Boreal PZ VI Pronounced dryness PZ V Very rapid warming PZ IV	Ash, beech, birch, and hornbeam increasing. Roman invasion of England. Rapid population growth. Agricultural surplus and full landscape utilization. Iron tools. Increasing use of valleys and of wetlands. Retreat from the highlands. Peat increasing and maximum upland farming. Forest clearance. Husbandry. Permanent, allotted fields. Manure utilized. Bronze tools. Stonehenge. Increasing environmental impacts and expanded land utilization. “Elm decline” Extensive cultivation and grazing. Neolithic agricultural tools. First communal monuments. “Vegetational optimum” Immigrants introduce domesticated animals and cereal cultivation. Increased exploitation of favorable habitats. Mixed oak forest and alder. Relationship between hunters and herds developing. Mesolithic tools. Fire creates gaps in forest cover. Mixed oak forest, hazel and pine. Domestication of dog. Birch and pine. Upper Paleolithic tools.
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8000 BC

back to Land Use in Britain – Stone Age to Iron Age : Stone Age.

Playlist Wild Food.

Playlists BBC Farm Series.

Pages

Luttrell Psalter, 1325

𝕸 Anglo-Saxons to Normans

Legacy of Anglo-Saxons

Chained Library, Hereford Cathedral

Debunking myths about middle ages

𝕸 Crises

1066 Norman Conquest